The
Science Notebook
Lionel Chem-Lab
- Chapter 24
NOTE: This book was published in 1942 as a manual to
accompany several Lionel Chemistry sets of the time. While
some of the experiments and activities here may be safely
done as written, a number of them use chemicals and methods no
longer considered safe. In addition, much of the
information contained in this book about chemistry and other
subjects is outdated and some of it is inaccurate.
Therefore, this book is probably best appreciated for its
historical value rather than as a source for current information
and good experiments. If you try
anything here, please understand that you do so at your
own risk. See our Terms of Use.
Pages 244 - 255
CHAPTER XXIV
OTHER INDUSTRIES
GLUE, CEMENT AND MUCILAGE
An adhesive
is a sticky substance, such as glue or mucilage, which can be
applied to a surface and cause it to adhere to another surface. Dextrin (obtained from
starch) and gum arabic
are used to manufacture the gum used on envelopes and stamps.
There are several types of glue all of which are
derivatives of vegetable and animal matter. Fish glue is made from
refuse fish stock. Animal and bone glues come from bones, hoofs
and horns. The process of manufacture consists of boiling the
matter after it has been chemically softened by an alkali, then
drying the resulting solution.
Billboard posters are applied with a starch paste.
EXPERIMENT No. 631 Preparation Of Starch Paste
(CL-44, CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
APPARATUS:
Calcium chloride, powdered starch, test tube, alcohol lamp or
candle.
PROCEDURE:
Place twelve measures of powdered starch in a test tube one quarter
filled with water and shake thoroughly. Put two measures of calcium
chloride in another test tube half full of boiling water. Add the
starch solution and let it boil for a few more minutes, then cool
it. This will make a very good starch paste which you can preserve,
if you wish, by adding a few drops of carbolic acid.
EXPERIMENT No. 632 Preparation Of Flour Paste
(CL-33, CL-44, CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
APPARATUS:
Calcium chloride and white flour.
PROCEDURE:
Mix ten measures of white flour and three measures of calcium
chloride in a test tube. Fill the tube half full of water and boil
for a few minutes. Discontinue heating as soon as the mixture forms
a paste. Preserve by adding a few drops of carbolic acid. This
is the kind of paste that paper hangers use.
EXPERIMENT No. 633 A Cement For Blue China
(CL-66, CL-77)
APPARATUS:
Sodium silicate solution, copper sulfate, mortar and pestle, pieces
of blue china.
244
LIONEL
CHEM-LAB 245
PROCEDURE:
Put two measures of copper sulfate in your mortar. Mix in a few
drops of sodium silicate solution to make a paste. Apply an even
coat to both surfaces of the china pieces. Set aside to harden.
EXPERIMENT No. 634 A Cement For White China And
Porcelain
(CL-66, CL-77)
APPARATUS:
Calcium carbonate, sodium silicate solution, mortar and pestle,
pieces of white china or porcelain.
PROCEDURE:
Place two measures of calcium carbonate in your mortar. Add a few
drops of sodium silicate solution and mix well to make a paste.
Apply a line coat of cement to both surfaces of the china or
porcelain pieces and press them together tightly. Clean off any
excess cement and allow to harden for a day or two.
EXPERIMENT No. 635 A Cement to Mend Metal Vessels
(CL-66, CL-77)
APPARATUS:
Powdered iron, ammonium chloride, sulfur, mortar and pestle, a leaky
metal container.
PROCEDURE:
Put two measures of sulfur, ten measures of powdered iron and two
measures of ammonium chloride in your mortar. Add several drops of
water, enough to form a thick paste. Press the paste firmly over the
opening or crack in the vessel. Allow to stand for a day. Heat the
vessel over a stove for a few moments.
EXPERIMENT No. 636 How “Rubber Cement” Is Made
(CL-66, CL-77)
APPARATUS:
Carbon tetrachloride, rubber scraps, test tube and cork or cotton.
PROCEDURE:
Put into a dry test tube a few small pieces of scrap photo engravers
to cement paper and cardboard together because it Close the test
tube with your thumb and shake vigorously. Stopper the tube with a
cork or wad of cotton and set aside, occasionally shaking the tube.
Note in due time the resulting thick substance.
SUMMARY:
Rubber cement is used by artists, photographers and photo-engravers
to cement paper and cardboard together because it does not wrinkle
or leave any stains. Using a dry lump of the material like an
eraser, you can completely clean any surplus cement from around the
edges of the job.
EXPERIMENT No. 637 Sodium Silicate Cement
(CL-11, CL-22, CL-33, CL-44, CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
APPARATUS:
Sodium silicate solution, two small pieces of broken glass, a small
brush and a small piece of cloth.
PROCEDURE:
Apply a thin film of sodium silicate solution to the edges of the
glass. Allow to dry for a few seconds, then press the,
246 OTHER
INDUSTRIES
pieces tightly together. Clean off the excess with a damp cloth and
allow to harden for at least one day. In addition to cementing
broken glass, sodium silicate can also be used to cement paper and
cardboard.
EXPERIMENT No. 638 Making Glue From Lime And
Egg-white
(CL-66, CL-77)
APPARATUS:
Two pieces of broken crockery, egg, mortar and pestle, and calcium
oxide.
PROCEDURE:
Place a small amount of egg-white in your mortar. Add a sufficient
quantity of calcium oxide to make a substantial paste. Apply quickly
to the edges of the broken crockery and press tightly together. Note
how quickly the cement hardens.
EXPERIMENT No. 639 How To Make Mucilage From Gum
Arabic
(CL-44, CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
APPARATUS:
Gum arabic, test tube, alcohol lamp or candle.
PROCEDURE:
Place six measures of gum arabic in a test tube half full of water
and allow to stand overnight. Heat contents carefully until the gum
arabic dissolves completely. Note the adhesive properties of gum
arabic. Preserve if necessary by adding a few drops of carbolic
acid.
EXPERIMENT No. 640 Preparation Of Postage Stamp
Mucilage
(CL-44, CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
APPARATUS:
Gum arabic, sugar, starch, test tube, piece of paper, brush, candle
or alcohol lamp.
PROCEDURE:
Place two measures of gum arabic, eight measures of sugar and two
measures of starch in a test tube half full of water. Allow the
mixture to stand for several hours. Boil for a few minutes and then
allow to cool. Apply with a brush to a piece of paper and allow to
dry. Moisten mucilage as you would a postage stamp when ready to
attach to some surface. This mucilage is similar to that used by our
government in making postage stamps.
TANNING AND THE LEATHER INDUSTRY
Leather is made from the skins of various
animals by the process known as tanning.
This process consists of first removing the hair by the use of
lime, then washing with a weak acid. Tannic acid, or tannin, obtained from the bark of the hemlock
tree and other woods is then applied to change the skin slowly
into leather.
EXPERIMENT No. 641 How To Make Nickel Tannate
(CL-66, CL-77)
LIONEL
CHEM-LAB 247
APPARATUS:
Nickel chloride, tannic acid and test tubes.
PROCEDURE:
Dissolve one measure of tannic acid in a test tube one quarter full
of water. Dissolve one measure of nickel chloride in another test
tube containing the same amount of water. Add tannic acid solution
and note the pale green precipitate. This precipitate is nickel
tannate.
EXPERIMENT No. 642 How To Make Molybdenum Tannate
(CL-77)
Repeat Experiment No. 641 substituting ammonium molybdate for nickel
chloride. Ammonium molybdate in the presence of tannic acid forms a
rust colored solution.
EXPERIMENT No. 643 How To Make Tungsten Tannate
(CL-77)
Repeat Experiment No. 641 substituting one half measure of sodium
tungstate for nickel chloride. The yellow precipitate will be
tungsten tannate.
EXPERIMENT No. 644 How Copper Tannate Is Formed
(CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
Repeat Experiment No. 641 substituting copper sulfate for nickel
chloride. The precipitate will be copper tannate.
EXPERIMENT No. 645 How Ferric Tannate Is Formed
(CL-11, CL•22, CL-33, CL-44, CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
Repeat Experiment No. 641 substituting ferric ammonium sulfate for
nickel chloride. The ferric breaks away from the ammonium sulfate
and unites with the tannic acid to form the black precipitate of
ferric tannate.
EXPERIMENT No. 646 How To Make Ferrous Tannate
(CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
Repeat Experiment No. 641 substituting ferrous ammonium sulfate for
nickel chloride. The greenish black precipitate will be ferrous
tannate.
EXPERIMENT No. 647 Formation Or Chromium Tannate
(CL-44, CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
Repeat Experiment No. 641 substituting chrome alum for nickel
chloride. The green precipitate will be chromium tannate.
248 OTHER
INDUSTRIES
EXPERIMENT No. 648 Formation Of Cobalt Tannate
(CL-33, CL-44, CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
Repeat Experiment No. 641 substituting cobalt chloride for nickel
chloride. The pink precipitate will be cobalt tannate.
EXPERIMENT No. 649 How Hemlock Bark Is Tested For
Tannic Acid
(CL-11, CL-22, CL-33, CL-44, CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
APPARATUS:
Hemlock bark, ferric ammonium sulfate, two test tubes, alcohol lamp
or candle.
PROCEDURE:
Boil two small pieces of hemlock bark for five minutes in a test
tube half full of water. Pour off the clear liquid into another test
tube. Add a quarter measure of ferric ammonium sulfate. Note the
black color.
SUMMARY:
The black precipitate indicates the presence of tannic acid in the
bark.
EXPERIMENT No. 650 Tannic Acid In Tea
(CL-11, CL-22, CL-33, CL-44, CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
APPARATUS:
Tea leaves, two test tubes, ferric ammonium sulfate, alcohol lamp or
candle.
PROCEDURE:
Boil two measures of tea leaves in a test tube one quarter full of
water. Pour off the clear liquid into another test tube. Add a
quarter measure of ferric ammonium sulfate and note the reaction.
EXPERIMENT No. 651 How To Test Chestnut Bark For
Tannic Acid
(CL-11, CL-22, CL-33, CL-44, CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
APPARATUS:
Ferric ammonium sulfate, two test tubes, candle or alcohol lamp,
chestnut bark.
PROCEDURE:
Boil two measures of chestnut bark in a test tube half full of
water. Pour the liquid into another test tube. Add a quarter measure
of ferric ammonium sulfate and note that the same reaction occurs as
in the preceding experiment.
EXPERIMENT No. 652 How To Test Sumac Wood For
Tannic Acid
(CL-11, CL-22, CL-33, CL-44, CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
Repeat Experiment No. 651 substituting a small piece of sumac wood
for chestnut bark. Inasmuch as sumac wood also contains tannic acid,
the reaction will be a black precipitate.
EXPERIMENT No. 653 How To Test Oak For Tannic
Acid
(CL-11, CL-22, CL-33, CL-44, CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
Repeat Experiment No. 651 substituting oak bark for chestnut bark.
This bark also contains tannic acid, the reaction will be a black
precipitate.
LIONEL
CHEM-LAB 249
EXPERIMENT No. 654 How Persimmon Is Tested For
Tannic Acid
(CL-11, CL-22, CL-33, CL-44, CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
Repeat Experiment No. 651 substituting green persimmon for chestnut
bark. Persimmon contains tannic acid, the reaction will be a black
precipitate.
EXPERIMENT No. 655 Tannic Acid And Albumen
(CL-11, CL-22, CL-33, CL-44, CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
APPARATUS:
Tannic acid, albumen (white of egg), and two test tubes.
PROCEDURE:
Add a few drops of albumen to a test tube half full of water.
Dissolve one measure of tannic acid in another test tube half full
of water. Slowly add this solution to the albumen solution and note
the precipitate. Skins contain albumen which reacts with tannic acid
to make a durable leather.
BLUEPRINTING
Blueprinting is the process by which an
original pen or pencil drawing made on translucent paper can be
reproduced merely by exposing the original over a specially
sensitized paper to a strong light.
After exposure, the print is developed by
dipping it into water and the portion of the blueprint paper
exposed to the light becomes dark blue, while the unexposed
portion (the part directly under the black lines on the original)
becomes white due to the action of the water on the chemical. This
gives a copy, consisting of a white line on a blue background,
exactly corresponding to the original.
EXPERIMENT No. 656 Making A Blueprint
(CL-11, CL-22, CL-33, CL-44, CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
APPARATUS:
Blueprint paper (store), tracing paper or small flat key, paper
clip.
PROCEDURE:
Place a key (or a piece of tracing paper on which something has been
drawn with black ink) against the sheet of blueprint paper. Hold
tightly against the blueprint paper with a paper clip. Expose this
paper to bright sunlight for several minutes. Remove the original
and dip the blueprint into water. Allow to dry and note the result.
SUMMARY:
The silhouette of the key or the drawing is printed on the blueprint
paper. The light has not been able to penetrate through the key or
the lines on the drawing but has affected the blueprint paper not
covered by them. The exposed portion of the print paper becomes blue
while the unaffected portion remains white because the water washes
away the chemical on the unexposed areas.
250 OTHER
INDUSTRIES
PHOTOGRAPHY
There are two main steps in making a
photograph: (1) making the negative and (2) making the print.
To make a negative, you must first expose a
sensitized film (or glass plate) to light, then develop it in a
dark room, and finally "fix" the resulting negative so that
additional light rays do not affect it.
Photographic film is coated with silver
bromide. Exposing a film to the light, therefore, starts the reduction of the silver
bromide. A mild reducing agent as a developer continues the reduction process begun
by the action of the light.
Sodium thiosulfate, or "hypo" used as a fixer,
dissolves the unchanged silver salt so the film does not darken
again when exposed to the light.
A print is made from a negative film simply by
exposing some sensitized paper so that the light rays must first
pass through the film to reach the paper which is then developed
and fixed in the same way as the film.
EXPERIMENT No. 657 How A Photographic Print Is
Made
(CL-11, CL-22, CL-33, CL-44, CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
APPARATUS:
Proof paper (photographic supply store), negative, glass, a green
light bulb.
PROCEDURE:
Perform the following experiment in a room illuminated only by a dim
green light. Place the dull surface of the negative, against the
sensitized surface of the proof paper which should be a little
larger than the negative. Place on a smooth surface with the
negative uppermost and cover with a sheet of clean glass. Expose to
strong sunlight until the paper projecting beyond the edge of the
negative turns dark brown. Remove the glass and separate the
negative from the proof paper. Examine the print.
SUMMARY:
The photographic print on the paper was produced by the
decomposition of silver halide which reacts and becomes black when
exposed to light. However, the paper will become completely black
after a time unless it is "fixed" in a bath of sodium thiosulfate.
EXPERIMENT No. 658 “Fixing” A Photographic Print
With “Hypo”
(CL-33, CL-44, CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
APPARATUS:
Sodium thiosulfate, beaker or glass, stirring rod, a shallow pan.
PROCEDURE:
Dissolve fifteen measures of sodium thiosulfate in a glass or beaker
with a half inch of water. This solution is commonly called "hypo".
Dip the photographic print made in the preceding experiment into the
hypo solution for five minutes. Wash the print for several minutes
in a steady stream of running water. Dry the print thoroughly by
pressing it between blotters for an hour or more. Light has no
effect on a print after a “hypo" bath.
LIONEL
CHEM-LAB 251
The upper
photos show three of the many thousands of articles made today
of molded plastics. That box car is not a real freight car at
all, but a very accurate Lionel scale model, the body of which
is entirely molded of Bakelite. The two other molded articles
are a telephone index and an electric razor. The lower photo
shows a scene in the General Electric plastics department where
ring boxes are being molded by the injection process.
252 OTHER
INDUSTRIES
EXPERIMENT No. 659 How A Photograph Is Made
(CL-11, CL-22, CL-33, CL-44, CL-55, CL-66, CL-77)
APPARATUS:
Sulfur, calcium oxide, test tube, candle or alcohol lamp, saucer,
photographic print.
PROCEDURE:
Put one measure of sulfur and one measure of calcium oxide into a
test tube half full of water. Boil for a few minutes, then pour the
solution into a saucer or pan. Dip a photographic print into the pan
and allow it to stand for about thirty minutes. Remove the print and
wash thoroughly under running water.
SUMMARY:
This process converts the silver to silver sulfide which imparts a
reddish-brown color to the print.
PLASTICS
In the ordinary sense "plastic" means “capable
of being molded or modeled, as clay," and, no doubt, the earliest
plastic material was the primitive potter’s clay. Broadly
speaking, rubber, clay, glass, Portland cement, and other
materials may be classified as plastics. However, the term "modern
plastics" is generally applied to a group of synthetic organic
materials which are made plastic by the use of heat and are
capable of being molded or pressed into finished parts and
products.
RUBBER
One of the most important materials supplied
to us by nature is rubber,
sometimes called "black gold" because of its commercial value.
First brought to the attention of the civilized world by Columbus,
who found the natives of Haiti playing with a rubber ball, this
material is now used for literally thousands of purposes and is
the basis of an industry which does a billion-dollar business
annually.
While hundreds of different trees, weeds and
vines contain rubber, none equals in quality and quantity that
obtained from the milky juice of the Hevea tree, native to the
equatorial jungles of Brazil. However, 96% of our supplies of
crude rubber come from the East Indies where the British and Dutch
have transplanted and cultivated the seed of the wild Brazilian
trees.
Rubber trees are tapped to obtain the “milk",
or latex, which flows from the trees and is collected in cups and
buckets much as maple syrup is collected. The rubber particles in
the latex can then be separated from the liquid by the use of
acetic acid. This causes the rubber to coagulate. Another method,
sometimes used, is to separate the rubber by evaporating off the
water. Chemicals such as zinc oxide, sulfur and carbon are next
compounded to this raw rubber, to make it suitable for ordinary
purposes. Adding the sulfur was the invention of Goodyear who
found that this
LIONEL
CHEM-LAB 253
treatment prevented the rubber from being
sticky and easily affected by the temperature. The name given to
this process is vulcanization.
NEOPRENE
Chemists throughout the world during the past fifty years have spent
many millions of dollars trying to make synthetic rubber. Although
they have not succeeded in the commercial manufacture of a product
identical with "real" rubber, in many respects they have done
better. Using four of nature’s own raw materials, limestone, coal,
salt and water, chemists are 1ow making a product known as neoprene
which looks like rubber, acts like rubber, and can be used in the
manufacture of practically all articles for which rubber is now
used.
254 OTHER
INDUSTRIES
Goodyear
Rubber Company - These photos show how rubber is obtained
beginning with the tapping of the tree to obtain latex,
subsequent processing operations on the rubber plantation and
Finally loading the crude rubber at a deep seas harbor for
transportation to foreign ports.
LIONEL
CHEM-LAB 255
Two of
the reasons why Uncle Sam’s military machine needs vast
quantities of rubber are shown in the top and bottom
photographs. The upper photo shows one of the new style
"trackless" tanks undergoing tests while the lower photo is of a
bullet-sealing airplane gasoline tank. Photo left center shows a
new type of rubber mold used making costume jewelry. On right is
a picture of the mill used for washing Neoprene, synthetic
rubber.
"The Science Notebook"
Copyright 2008-2018 - Norman Young
